Salish
From NativeWiki
The Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Reservation are the Bitterroot Salish, Kootenai and Pend d'Oreilles Tribes. They lived between the Cascade Mountains and Rocky Mountains. The Salish (Flatheads) initially lived entirely east of the Continental Divide but established their headquarters near the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains. Occasionally hunting parties went west of the Continental Divide but never east of the Bitterroot Range. The easternmost edge of their ancestral hunting forays were the Gallatin, Crazy Mountain, and Little Belt Ranges.
They were called the Flathead Indians by the first white men who came to the Columbia River. The name is often said to derive from the flat skull produced by binding infant's skulls with boards. However, this is mistaken folk etymology, as the tribes never practiced head flattening. In fact, the Salish were called "flat head" because the tops of their heads were not pointed like those of neighbouring tribespeople who practiced vertical head-binding. The sign language used by neighboring tribes to distinguish the Flatheads consisted of "pressing each side of the head" with the hands. The Flatheads call themselves Salish meaning the people.
Contents |
[edit] History
The written record of the tribes is from their meeting with the Lewis and Clark Expedition (September 5, 1805). They also appear in the records of the Catholic Church at St. Louis to which they sent four delegations to request missionaries (or "Black Robes") to minister to the tribe. Their request was finally granted and a number of missionaries including Pierre-Jean De Smet, S.J., were eventually sent.
The tribes negotiated the Treaty of Hellgate with the United States in 1855. From the start, the Hellgate Treaty negotiations were plagued by serious translation problems. A Jesuit observer, Father Adrian Hoecken, said that the translations were so poor that "not a tenth of what was said was understood by either side." But as in the meeting with Lewis and Clark, the pervasive cross-cultural miscommunication ran even deeper than problems of language and translation. Tribal people came to the meeting assuming they were going to formalize and already recognized friendship. Non-Indians came with the goal of making official their claims to native lands and resources. Isaac Stevens, the new governor and superintendent of Indian affairs for Washington Territory, was intent on obtaining cession of the Bitterroot Valley from the Salish. Many non-Indians were already well aware of the valley's potential value for agriculture and its relatively temperate climate in winter. Due to the resistance of Chief Victor (Many Horses), Stevens ended up inserting into the treaty complicated (and doubtless poorly translated) language that defined the Bitterroot Valley south of Lolo Creek as a "conditional reservation" for the Salish. Chief Victor put his X mark on the document, convinced that the agreement would not require his people to leave their homeland. No other word came from the government for the next fifteen years, so the Salish assumed that they would indeed stay in their Bitterroot Valley forever.
After the 1864 gold rush in newly established Montana Territory, pressure upon the Salish intensified from both illegal non-Indian squatters and government officials. In 1870, Chief Victor died, and he was succeeded as chief by his son, Chief Charlot (aka Charlo, Claw of the Little Grizzly). Like his father, Chief Charlot adhered to a policy of nonviolent resistance. He insisted on the right of his people to remain in the Bitterroot Valley. But territorial citizens and officials thought the new chief could be pressured into capitulating. In 1871, they successfully lobbied President Ulysses S. Grant to declare that the survey required by the treaty had been conducted and that it had found that the Jocko (Flathead) Reservation was better suited to the needs of the Salish. On the basis of Grant's executive order, Congress sent a delegation, led by future president James Garfield, to make arrangements with the tribe for their removal. Chief Charlot ignored their demands and even their threats of bloodshed, and he again refused to sign any agreement to leave. U.S. officials then simply forged Chief Charlot's X onto the official copy of the agreement that was sent to the Senate for ratification.
Over time, the real reason for the Hellgate treaty meetings became clear to the Salish and Pend d'Oreille people. Under the terms spelled out in the written document, the tribes ceded to the United States more than twenty million acres (81,000 km²) of land and reserved from cession about 1.3 million acres (5300 km²), thus forming the Jocko or Flathead Indian Reservation. Conditions had become intolerable for the Salish by the late 1880s, after the Missoula and Bitter Root Valley Railroad was constructed directly through the tribe's lands, with neither permission from the native owners nor payment to them. Chief Charlot finally signed an agreement to leave the Bitterroot Valley in November 1889. Inaction by Congress, however, delayed the removal for another two years, and according to some observers, the tribe's desperation reached a level of outright starvation. In October 1891 a contingent of troops from Fort Missoula forced Chief Charlot and the Salish out of the Bitterroot and roughly marched the small band sixty miles to the Flathead Reservation.
The three main tribes moved to the Flathead Reservation were the Bitteroot Salish, Pend d'Oreille, and Kootenai. The Bitterroot Salish and the Pend d'Orielle tribes spoke dialects of the same Salish language.
[edit] Demographics
The tribe has about 6,800 members with approximately 4,000 tribal members currently living on the Flathead Reservation and 2,800 tribal members living off the reservation. 1,100 Native Americans from other tribes and over 10,000 non-Native Americans also live on the reservation.
As the first to organize a tribal government under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1936 they are governed by a tribal council. The Tribal Council has ten members and the council elects from within the Chairman, Vice Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer. The tribal government offers a number of services to tribal members and is the chief employer on the reservation. The tribes operate a tribal college, the Salish Kootenai College (SKC) and a heritage museum called "The People's Center" in Pablo, MT. The tribes own and jointly operate a valuable hydropower dam called Kerr Dam as well as the Best Western KwaTaqNuk Inn in Polson, Montana.
[edit] Geography
[edit] Aboriginal Lands
The peoples of these tribes originally lived in the areas of Montana, parts of Idaho, British Columbia and Wyoming. The original territory comprised about 22 million acres (89,000 km²) at the time of the 1855 Hellgate Treaty.
[edit] Reservation lands
The Flathead Reservation in northwest Montana is over 1.3 million acres (5,300 km²) in size.
The Tribal Council represents eight districts.
- Arlee District
- Dixon District
- Elmo District
- Hot Springs District
- Pablo District
- Polson District
- Ronan District
- St. Ignatius District
During WW II, a 422 foot Liberty Ship SS Chief Charlot was named in his honor and built in Richmond, CA in 1943.
Coast Salish refers to a a cultural or ethnographic designation of a subgroup of the First Nations or Native American cultures in British Columbia and Washington who speak one of the Coast Salish languages or dialects. Coast Salish languages are part of the Salishan language family, although there is no one language or people named "Coast Salish".
[edit] Geography
The Coast Salish homeland encompasses most of the Georgia and Puget Sound Basins, encompassing the sites of the modern-day cities of Vancouver, British Columbia, Seattle, Washington, and others. Archeological evidence indicates that Coast Salish peoples may have inhabited the area as far back as 9000 B.C.E. What is now Seattle, for example, has been inhabited since the end of the last glacial period (c. 8,000 B.C.E.—10,000 years ago).<ref name = "Atlas"> Template:Cite book</ref>
In the past, the Nuxálk (or Bella Coola) of British Columbia's Central Coast have also been considered Coast Salish. This language shares at least one phonological change with Coast Salish (the merger of the Proto-Salish pharyngeal approximants with the uvular fricatives), but it also displays certain similarities to the Interior Salish languages. If it is indeed a member of the Coast Salish branch, it was the first to split off from the rest.
[edit] Culture
[edit] Social organization
External
Neighboring groups, whether villages or adjacent tribes, were related by marriage, feasting, ceremonies, and common or shared territory. Ties were especially strong within the same waterway or watershed. There existed no breaks throughout the south Coast Salish culture area and beyond. There existed no formal political institutions.<ref>Template:Cite encyclopedia</ref>
External relations were extensive throughout most of the Puget Sound-Georgia Basin and east to the Sahaptin-speaking lands of Chelan, Kittitas and Yakama in what is now Eastern Washington.
There was little political organization. No formal political office existed. Warfare for the southern Coast Salish was primarily defensive, with occasional raiding into territory where there were no relatives. No institutions existed for mobilizing or maintaining a standing force.
The real enemies of all the Coast Salish for most of the first half of the 19th century were the Lekwiltok Kwakiutl (Kwakwaka'wakw). With earlier access to guns with the fur trade, they raided for slaves and loot. Organized retaliatory raids from several tribes were raised several times.<ref name=Suttle&Lane495-7>Suttle & Lane (1990), pp. 495–7</ref>
Internal
The highest-ranking male assumed the role of ceremonial leader but rank could vary and was determined by different standards.<ref name=SalishArtCulture /> Villages were linked to others through intermarriage; the wife usually went to live at the husband's village. Society was divided into upper class, lower class and slaves, all largely hereditary.<ref name=SalishArtCulture /> Nobility was based on genealogy, intertribal kinship, wise use of resources, and possession of esoteric knowledge about the workings of spirits and the world — making an effective marriage of class, secular, religious, and economic power. Many Coast Salish mothers altered the appearance of their free-born by carefully shaping the heads of their babies, binding them with cradle boards just long enough to produce a steep sloping forehead.<ref>Miller (1996)</ref>
Unlike hunter-gatherer societies widespread in North America, but similar to other Pacific Northwest coastal cultures, Coast Salish society was complex, hierarchical and oriented toward property and status.
Slavery was widespread.<ref>Donald (1997)</ref> The Coast Salish held slaves as simple property and not as members of the tribe. The children of slaves themselves became slaves.Template:Fact
The staple of their diet was typically salmon, supplemented with a rich variety of other seafoods and forage, particularly for the southern Coast Salish where the climate was even more temperate.<ref name=Suttle&Lane488-9>Suttle & Lane (1990), pp. 488–9</ref>
The art of the Coast Salish has become a popular idiom for modern art in British Columbia and the Puget Sound area.Template:Fact
Recreation
Games often involved gambling on a sleight-of-hand game known as slahal, as well as athletic contests. Games that are similar to modern day lacrosse, rugby and forms of martial arts also existed.<ref>Pathways of the Past: A look at the history and organization of the Squamish people. Community archive of the Sḵwxwú7mesh Pg. 4</ref>
Beliefs
Belief in guardian spirits and transmutation between human and animal were widely shared in myriad forms. The relations of soul or souls, the lands of the living and the dead, were complex and mutable. Vision quest journeys involving other states of consciousneess were varied and widely practiced. The Duwamish had a soul recovery and journey ceremony.<ref name=Suttle&Lane495-7 />
[edit] Architecture
Villages of the Coast Salish typically consisted of Western Red Cedar split plank and earthen floor longhouses providing habitation for forty or more people, usually a related extended family. Also used by many groups were pit-houses, known in the Chinook Jargon as kekuli (see Quiggly holes). The villages were typically located near navigable water for easy transportation by dugout canoe. Houses that were part of the same village sometimes stretched for several miles along a river or watercourse.
The interior walls of longhouses were typically lined with sleeping platforms. Storage shelves above the platforms held baskets, tools, clothing, and other items. Firewood was stored below the platforms. Mattresses and cushions were constructed woven reed mats and animals skins. Food was hung to dry from the ceiling. The larger houses included partitions to separate families, as well as interior fires with roof slats that functioned as chimneys.Template:Fact
The wealthy built extraordinarily large longhouses. The Suquamish Oleman House (Old Man House) at what became the Port Madison Reservation was 152 x 12–18 m (500 x 40–60 ft), c. 1850. The gambrel roof was unique to Puget Sound Coast Salish.<ref name=Suttle&Lane>Suttle & Lane (1990), p. 491</ref>
[edit] Diet
Provisionally, this is primarily southern Coast Salish, though much is in common with Coast Salish overall.
Anthropogenic grasslands were maintained. The south Coast Salish may have had more vegetables and land game than people farther north or on the outer coast. Fish and salmon were staples. There was kakanee, a freshwater fish in the Lake Washington and Lake Sammamish watersheds. Shellfish were abundant. Butter clams, horse clams, and cockles were dried for trade.
Hunting was specialized; professions were probably sea hunters, land hunters, fowlers. Water fowl were captured on moonless nights using strategic flares.
The managed grasslands not only provided game habitat, but vegetable sprouts, roots, bulbs, berries, and nuts were foraged from them as well as found wild. The most important were probably bracken and camas; wapato especially for the Duwamish. Many, many varieties of berries were foraged; some were harvested with comblike devices not reportedly used elsewhere. Acorns were relished but were not widely available. Regional tribes went in autumn to the Nisqually Flats (Nisqually plains) to harvest them.<ref name=Suttle&Lane488-9 /> Indeed, the regionswas so abundant that the southern Puget Sound as a whole had one of the only sedentary hunter-gatherer societies that has ever existed.Template:Fact
[edit] History
The following is a provisional list of historical events, primarily from an American perspective. Coast Salish peoples in British Columbia have had similar economic experience, although their political and treaty experience has been different—occasionally dramatically so:
- c. 9,000–8,000 BCE: Evidence of established settlement
- 6th century CE: Prominent villages along the Duwamish River estuary, for example. These remained continuously inhabited until sometime in the later 18th century.)<ref>Dailey), map icon 33, Dailey reference 2, 9, 10.</ref>
- 1792: Brief contact with the Vancouver expedition by the Sḵwxwú7mesh and others.
- 1810s: Coastal fur trade with infrequent ships extends south from farther north.
- 1810s through 1850s: raiding by northern peoples, esp Euclataws and Haida, of Georgia Strait-Puget Sound Salish peoples.
- 1824: John Work and party of the HBC traveled the length of the central and south Georgia Strait-Puget Sound.
- 1827: HBC Fort Langley established east of present-day Vancouver, B.C. Contact and trade began accelerating significantly, primarily with the northern and north-central Coast Salish.
- 1833: Fort Nisqually and its farm established by the Puget Sound Agricultural Company a subsidiary of the HBC, between present-day Olympia and Tacoma, Washington. Contact and trade began accelerating significantly with the southern Coast Salish. Significant social change and change in social structures accelerates with increasing contact. Initiative remained with Native traders until catastraphic population decline. Native traders and Native economy were not particularly interested or dependent upon European trade or tools. Trade goods were primarily luxuries such as trade blankets, ornamentation, guns and ammunition. The HBC monopoly did not condone alcohol, but freebooter traders were under no compunction.<ref>(1) Suttle & Lane (1990) p. 489
(2) Although Hudson's Bay and Pendleton blankets have retained a widely-renowned cachet to the present day.</ref> - 1839–40: Catholic missionaries arrive in Puget Sound country. 1841–43: Interest diminishes. 1840–42: Methodist missionaries arrive, have no success at all.
- 1840–on: Missionaries. In the United States, churches divided territory among themselves by the federal Peace Policy of 1869.Template:Fact
- 1854-55: Treaties. Reservations. Some tribes do not participate and others dropped out of treaty negotiations. (See, for example, Treaty of Point Elliott #Native Americans and # Non-signatory tribes.)
- The Muckleshoot Reservation is established after the Indian War of 1855–56.
- 1850s–60s: Traditional resources are less and less available. Sawmill work and employment selling natural resources begins and continues; Native men work as loggers, in the mills, and as commercial fishers. Women sell basketry, shellfish, and make other adjustments.
- 1870s: Agricultural work in hopyards of the east Sound river valleys grows, even mushrooms.<ref name=Suttle&Lane499-500>Suttle & Lane (1990), pp. 499–500</ref>
- 1880s: White-Indian demographics shift dramatically. Commercial fisheries employment begins to decline significantly.
- 1885: After legislation amending the Indian Act was passed the previous year, the potlatch is banned in Canada, effective January 1, 1885 and in the U.S. some years later.<ref>[http://www.schoolnet.ca/ABORIGINAL/umistweb/art6a-e.html Confiscation
An Incident in History]</ref>
- 1934 (U.S.), 1951 (Canada): Official suppresion of the potlatch ends. Some potlatching becomes overt immediately, and a renaissance follows.<ref>Cole & Chaikin (1990)</ref>
- 1960s: Renaissance of tribal culture and national civil rights engenders civil action for treaty rights.
- 1960s–1970s: Employment in commercial fisheries has greatly declined; employment in logging and lumber mills declines significantly with automation, outsourcing, and the decline in available resources through the 1980s.
- 1974, Supreme Court upheld 1979: The Boldt Decision, based on the Treaty of Point Elliott of 1855 restores fisheries rights to federally recognized Puget Sound tribes:
The right of taking fish at usual and accustomed grounds and stations is further secured to said Indians in common with all citizens of the Territory,
In implementation, this means half the catch, at sustainable levels by subsequent negotiations. - 1970s–present: Many federally recognized tribes develop some economic autonomy with (initially strongly contested) tax-free tobacco retail, development of casino gambling, fisheries and stewardship of fisheries. Extant tribes not federally recognized continue ongoing legal proceedings and cultural development toward recognition.<ref>See also Treaty of Point Elliott #Context and, for example, Duwamish (tribe) #Recent history</ref>
[edit] Population
Among losses due to diseases, a smallpox epidemic broke out among the Northwest tribes in 1862, killing roughly half the affected native populations. Documentation in archives and historical epidemiology demonstrates that governmental policies furthered the progress of this epidemic among the natives, and did little or nothing about the waves of other introduced epidemics. Mean population decline 1774–1874 was about 66%.<ref>(1) Lange, Essay 5171)
(2) Boyd (1999)
(2.1) A smallpox vaccine was discovered in 1801. Russian Orthohox missionaries were an exception to general policy, vaccinating at-risk Native populations in what is now SE Alaska and NW British Columbia. [Boyd]</ref>
- Pre-epidemics about 12,600; Lushootseed about 11,800, Twana about 800.
- 1850: about 5,000.
- 1885 less than 2,000, probably not including all the off-reservation populations.
- 1984: sum total about 18,000; Lushootseed census 15,963, Twana 1,029.<ref name=Suttle&Lane499-500 />
[edit] Culture
- Languages
- Historical Sites
- Archaeology
[edit] External links
- Official site of the Confederated Tribes
- Official site of Nkwusm Salish Language Institute
- Treaty of Hellgate (1855)
- Lewis and Clark expedition journal entry
[edit] Notable Salish
Vi Herbert, Salish linguist
